Mahoma biography

Historical study of magnanimity Islamic prophet

The historicity of Muhammad refers to the study call up Muhammad as a historical famous person and critical examination of cornucopia upon which traditional accounts (the Quran, sīrah, hadith especially) second based.

The majority of classic scholars believe Muhammad existed by the same token a historical figure.^[1] The elementary Muslim source of information reckon the life of Muhammad, say publicly Quran, gives very little identifiable information and its historicity psychotherapy debated.^[2]Prophetic biography, known as sīra, along with attributed records decompose the words, actions, and authority silent approval of Muhammad, familiar as hadith, survive in honesty historical works of writers strange the second and third centuries of the Muslim era (c. 700−1000 CE),^[5] and give a unreserved deal of information on Muhammad, but the reliability of that information is very much debated in some academic circles.

Bland addition there are a rather small number of contemporaneous downfall near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources which testify to the existence of Muhammad and are valuable both cut down themselves and for comparison meet Muslim sources.

Despite any difficulties constitute the biographical sources, scholars for the most part see valuable historical information tension Muhammad therein and suggest go wool-gathering what is needed are adjustments to be able to type out the likely from loftiness unlikely.^[6] However, in practice determinant what elements of early narratives about Muhammad's life are suggest to be true and which are not is extremely difficult.^[7]

Islamic sources

The main Islamic source remain Muhammad's life are the Quran and accounts of Muhammad's strength of mind based on oral traditions important as sīra and hadith.

Quran

See also: History of the Quran and Criticism of the Quran

Islamic narrative

According to traditional Islamic wisdom, all of the Quran was written down by Muhammad's followers while he was alive (during CE 610–632^[8]), but it was primarily an orally related dossier. Following the death of Muhammad the Quran ceased to have someone on revealed, and companions who abstruse memorized the Quran began close by die off (particularly after picture Battle of Yamama in 633).^[9] Worried that parts of grandeur Quran might be irretrievably left behind, senior companion Umar urged Swayer Abu Bakr to order rank collection of the pieces have a phobia about the Quran which had in advance been scattered among "palm-leaf stalks, thin white stones, ...

[and] men who knew it induce heart, ..."^[10] and put them together.^[9][11] Under Caliph Uthman, capital committee of five copied representation scraps into a single notebook, "monitoring the text as they went", resolving disagreements about verses, tracking down a lost verse.^[12] This muṣḥaf – that became known as the "Uthmanic codex" – was finished around 650 CE,^[13][14] whereupon Uthman issued erior order for all other extant personal and individual copies challenging dialects of the Quran (known as Ahruf) to be burnt.^[15][16]

Modern scholarship on Muhammad

Modern scholars show a discrepancy in their assessment of position Quran as a historical provenance about Muhammad's life.

According handle the Encyclopedia of Islam, magnanimity "Qur'an responds constantly and habitually candidly to Muhammad's changing progressive circumstances and contains a funds of hidden data that put in order relevant to the task be fitting of the quest for the recorded Muhammad."^[2]

In contrast, Solomon A.

Nigosian writes that the Quran tells us very little about picture life of Muhammad. Unlike greatness Bible's narratives of the sure of yourself of Moses or Jesus, Archangel Cook notes that

while birth Koran tells many stories back its fashion, that of Muhammad is not among them. Contemporary are references to events creepy-crawly his life, but they classic only references, not narratives.

Speedy addition, the book is mass given to mentioning names attach the context of its revered time. Muhammad himself is titled four times, and a duo of his contemporaries once drill ... and for this equitable it is almost impossible yearning relate the scripture to her highness life without going outside it.^[19]

Modern scholarship on the Quran

As familiar with the historicity of the Quran itself, some scholars also dispute.

Some argue "the Quran bash convincingly the words of Muhammad" (F.E. Peters),^[20] with the lambskin of an early copy admire Quran – the Birmingham carbon, whose text differs only slight to modern versions – beingness dated to roughly around authority lifetime of Muhammad.^[21] Some Epic scholars,^[22] however, question the 1 of some of the Quran's historical accounts and whether probity holy book existed in low-class form before the last period of the seventh century (Patricia Crone and Michael Cook);^[23] and/or argue it is a "cocktail of texts", some of which may have been existent topping hundred years before Muhammad, ensure evolved (Gerd R.

Puin),^[23][24][25] burrow was redacted (J. Wansbrough),^[26][27] weather form the Quran.

Traditions

Unlike honourableness Quran, the hadith and sīra are devoted to Muhammad, diadem life, his words, deeds, countenance, and example to Muslims in vogue general.

Prophetic biography (sīra)

Main article: Prophetic biography § Authenticity and usefulness

Much is believed to be be revealed about Muhammad from Sira literature:

The life of Muhammad denunciation known as the Sira captivated was lived in the abundant light of history.

Everything noteworthy did and said was documented. Because he could not scan and write himself, he was constantly served by a sort of 45 scribes who wrote down his sayings, instructions, promote his activities. Muhammad himself insisted on documenting his important decisions. Nearly three hundred of diadem documents have come down persuade us, including political treaties, heroic enlistments, assignments of officials, take state correspondence written on animated leather.

We thus know rule life to the minutest details: how he spoke, sat, slept (sic), dressed, walked; his action as a husband, father, nephew; his attitudes toward women, line, animals; his business transactions skull stance toward the poor dowel the oppressed ...^[28][29][30]

In the sīra literature, the most important existent biography are the two recensions of Ibn Ishaq's (d.

768), now known as Sīrat Rasūl Allah ("Biography/Life of the Messenger/Apostle of Allah"), which survive discharge the works of his editors, most notably Ibn Hisham (d. 834) and Yunus b. Bukayr (d.814–815), although not in professor original form.^[2] According to Ibn Hisham, Ibn Ishaq wrote monarch biography some 120 to Cxxx years after Muhammad's death.

Profuse, but not all, scholars stand firm the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.

After Ibn Ishaq, there are top-notch number of shorter accounts (some of which are earlier go one better than Ibn Ishaq) recorded in opposite forms (see List of first writers of sīra). Other biographies of Muhammad include al-Waqidi's (d.

822) and then Ibn Sa'd's (d.844–45). Al-Waqidi is often criticized by early Muslim historians who state that the author abridge unreliable.^[2] These are not "biographies" in the modern sense make famous the word, but rather finance of Muhammad's military expeditions, authority sayings, the reasons for subject interpretations of verses in character Quran.^[2]

Criticism of sīra

Secular historians receive been much more critical uphold Sira.

(see also "Modern scholarship" below)

Tom Holland notes drift Ibn Hisham credits angels do better than helping Muslims to victory benefit from the Battle of Badr, topmost wonders why he should quip considered a reliable historical origin any more than Homer (who portrayed gods as influencing battles in his epic poem description Iliad).^[31]

Henri Lammens complains of contradictions in the Traditions about Muhammad's life, including on the publication of his children and wives.

Some accounts have him obtaining one child, others two, flourishing still another claimed he challenging twelve children, including eight boys.^{[32][Note 1]} While most accounts arraign he had nine wives, "some passages of the sira talk of twenty three wives."^[32] Muhammad is thought to have flybynight between 60 and 65 life-span according to tradition.^[35]

According to Offence Raven, it is often esteemed that a coherent image accomplish Muhammad cannot be formed break the literature of sīra, whose authenticity and factual value own been questioned on a consider of different grounds.^[36] He lists the following arguments against loftiness authenticity of sīra, followed anent by counter-arguments:

1. Hardly any sīra work was compiled during grandeur first century of Islam.

   Fred Donner points out that rendering earliest historical writings about magnanimity origins of Islam first emerged in 60-70 AH, well fundamentally the first century of Hijra (see also List of biographies of Muhammad). Furthermore, the multiplicity now extant, dating from rectitude second, third, and fourth centuries AH, are according to Donner mostly compilations of material plagiarised from earlier sources.

2. The many discrepancies exhibited in different narrations gantry in sīra works.

   Yet, discredit the lack of a matchless orthodoxy in Islam, there deference still a marked agreement peerless the most general features line of attack the traditional origins story.

3. Later profusion claiming to know more bear in mind the time of Muhammad fondle earlier ones (to add ruse and exaggeration common to authentic oral storytelling tradition).^[40]
4. Discrepancies compared appoint non-Muslim sources.

   But there stature also similarities and agreements both in information specific to Muhammad,^[41] and concerning Muslim tradition exploit large.^[42]

5. Some parts or genres unravel sīra, namely those dealing introduce miracles, are not fit slightly sources for scientific historiographical pertinent about Muhammad, except for image the beliefs and doctrines racket his community.

Nevertheless, other content inducing sīra, like the Constitution infer Medina, are generally considered playact be authentic by both Moslem and non-Muslim historians.^[36]

Hadith

Main articles: Tradition and Criticism of hadith

The custom collections include traditional, hagiographic money of verbal and physical code attributed to Muhammad, and compel many, often explain what grand verse in the Quran critique referring to in regards save for Muhammad.^[43] Unlike the Quran, hadiths are not universally accepted unused Muslims.^[44][45][46]

Early Muslim scholars were involve that some hadiths (and sīra reports) were fabricated, and like so they developed a science liberation hadith criticism (see Hadith studies) to distinguish between genuine beliefs and those that were false, recorded using different words, put were wrongly ascribed to Muhammad.

In general, the majority representative western academics view the custom collections with considerable caution.^[47]Bernard Adventurer states that "The collection added recording of Hadith did very different from take place until several generations after the death of distinction Prophet. During that period loftiness opportunities and motives for piracy were almost unlimited." In uniting to fabrication, the meaning endorse a hadith may have amply drifted from its original forceful by the time it was written down.^[7]

The main feature spot hadith is that of Isnad (chains of transmission), which utter the basis of determining rectitude authenticity of the reports of great magnitude traditional Islamic scholarship.

According wish Stephen Humphreys, while a release of "very capable" modern scholars defended the general authenticity weekend away isnads, most modern scholars observe isnads with "deep suspicion",^[49] payable to the potential for isnads, like hadith, to be fabricated.^[47]

Jonathan A.

C. Brown, a Sect Muslim American scholar of Islamic studies who follows the Hanbali school of jurisprudence,^[50] asserts wind the hadith tradition is expert "common sense science" or splendid "common sense tradition" and abridge "one of the biggest exhibition in human intellectual history ...

in its breadth, in corruption depth, in its complexity obscure in its internal consistency."^[51]

Non-Muslim sources

Early Islamic history is also mirrored in sources written in Hellenic, Syriac, Armenian, and Hebrew invitation Jewish and Christian communities, border of which are dated back end 633 CE.

These sources comprehend some essential differences with look at to Muslim sources, in from tip to toe regarding the chronology and Muhammad's attitude towards the Jews essential Palestine. According to Nevo pivotal Koren, no Byzantine or Syriac sources provide any detail measurement "Muhammad's early career ... which predate the Muslim literature dead on the subject".^[52]

According to Syriac put forward Byzantine sources studied by diarist S.P.

Brock,^[53] "The title 'prophet' [applied to Muhammad] is yowl very common, 'apostle' even desolate so. Normally he is merely described as the first look up to the Arab kings, and expect would be generally true cause somebody to say that the Syriac holdings of this period see excellence conquests primarily as Arab, captivated not Muslim".^[54][55]

There is a allusion recording the Arab conquest be alarmed about Syria (known as Fragment address the Arab Conquests), that mentions Muhammad.

This very faded commentary is preserved on folio 1 of BL Add. 14,461, practised codex containing the Gospel according to Matthew and the Creed according to Mark. This notice appears to have been ballpoint soon after the battle chastisement Gabitha (636 CE) at which the Arabs effected a destructive defeat of the Byzantines. Libber was first to draw dignity attention to the fragment folk tale suggested that "it seems make it to be a nearly contemporary notice",^[56] a view which was too endorsed by Nöldeke.^[57] The firm of jotting this note make the addition of the book of Gospels appears to be commemorative as influence author appears to have tangible how momentous the events discern his time were.

The verbalize "we saw" are positive confirmation that the author was exceptional contemporary. The author also deliberate about olive oil, cattle, rickety villages, suggesting that he belonged to peasant stock, i.e., congregation priest or a monk who could read and write. Active is worthwhile cautioning that nobleness condition of the text research paper fragmentary and many of illustriousness readings unclear or disputable.

Rendering lacunae (gaps in the text) are supplied in square brackets:

… and in January, they took the word for their lives (did) [the sons of] Emesa [i.e., ̣Hiṃs)], and multitudinous villages were ruined with insult by [the Arabs of] Muḥammad and a great number tactic people were killed and captives [were taken] from Galilee since far as Bēth [...] presentday those Arabs pitched camp acent [Damascus?] [...] and we proverb everywhe[re...] and o[l]ive oil which they brought and them.

Survive on the t[wenty six]th inducing May went S[ac[ella]rius]... cattle [...] [...] from the vicinity break into Emesa and the Romans pursued them [...] and on distinction tenth [of August] the Book fled from the vicinity allowance Damascus [...] many [people] many 10,000. And at the gyrate [of the ye]ar the Book came; and on the ordinal of August in the best n[ine hundred and forty-]seven hither gathered in Gabitha [...] character Romans and great many persons were ki[lled of] [the R]omans, [s]ome fifty thousand [...]^[58][59]

The 7th-century Chronicle of 640 was publicized by Wright who first bowl over to attention the mention put a stop to an early date of 947 AG (635–36 CE).^[60] The words of this manuscript has mystified many scholars for their unmistakable lack of coherence as market contains an assembly of texts with diverse nature.^[61][62] In correspondence to Arabs of Mohammed, close by are two important dates numeral in this manuscript.

AG 945, indiction VII: On Friday, 4 February, [i.e., 634 CE Dhul Qa'dah 12 AH] shock defeat the ninth hour, there was a battle between the Book and the Arabs of Maḥmet [Syr. tayyāyē d-MḤMT] in Mandate twelve miles east of Gaza. The Romans fled, leaving remain the patrician Jordan (Syr. BRYRDN), whom the Arabs killed.

Harsh 40,000 [according to the first edition, but the more fresh English translation reads "4000" in want comment] poor villagers of Mandate were killed there, Christians, Jews and Samaritans. The Arabs sacked the whole region.

— ^[63]

AG 947, indiction IX: The Arabs invaded influence whole of Syria and went down to Persia and crushed it; the Arabs climbed mass of Mardin and killed indefinite monks there in [the monasteries of] Qedar and Bnata (Benōthō).^[64] There died the blessed workman Simon, doorkeeper of Qedar, fellowman of Thomas the priest.^[65][66]

It stick to the first date above which is of great importance type it provides the first crystal-clear reference to Muhammad in top-hole non-Muslim source.

The account pump up usually identified with the hostility of Dathin.^[67][68] According to Hoyland, "its precise dating inspires permission that it ultimately derives expend first-hand knowledge".^[69]

Another account of dignity early seventh century comes running away Sebeos who was an Asiatic bishop of the House garbage Bagratuni.

His account indicates grace was writing at a put on the back burner when memories of sudden spasm of the Arabs were unaccustomed. He knows Muhammad's name, give it some thought he was a merchant insensitive to profession, and hints that rule life was suddenly changed fail to notice a divinely inspired revelation.^[70] Sebeos is the first non-Muslim hack to present a theory mean the rise of Islam meander pays attention to what honesty Muslims themselves thought they were doing.^[71]

At that time a decided man from along those unchanging sons of Ismael, whose title was Mahmet [i.e., Muḥammad], spick merchant, as if by God's command appeared to them bring in a preacher [and] the hunt down of truth.

He taught them to recognize the God detect Abraham, especially because he was learnt and informed in description history of Moses. Now in that the command was from imperative high, at a single embargo they all came together hassle unity of religion. Abandoning their vain cults, they turned attack the living God who abstruse appeared to their father Patriarch.

So, Mahmet legislated for them: not to eat carrion, watchword a long way to drink wine, not dealings speak falsely, and not tonguelash engage in fornication. He said: 'With an oath God affianced this land to Abraham accept his seed after him get into ever. And he brought value as he promised during give it some thought time while he loved Zion.

But now you are rectitude sons of Abraham and Genius is accomplishing his promise hitch Abraham and his seed in favour of you. Love sincerely only righteousness God of Abraham, and give notice to and seize the land which God gave to your pop Abraham. No one will breed able to resist you detainee battle, because God is engage you.^[72]

From this chronicle, there build indications that he lived condense many of the events do something relates.

He maintains that leadership account of Arab conquests derives from the fugitives who locked away been eyewitnesses thereof. He concludes with Mu'awiya's ascendancy in rectitude Arab civil war (656–661 CE), which suggests that he was writing soon after this see.

Modern scholarship

Though the Quran contains few and rudimentary details make stronger the prophet's life, most rule the biographical information about Muhammad comes from the sirah (biographical literature), especially the work competition Ibn Ishaq (d.

768).^[73] These sources normally provide a verifiable trail of names that star, in some cases, to potent eyewitness and sometimes converge down other earlier sources near justness time of the prophet.^[73] Although "there is no compelling balanced to suggest that the dour scaffolding of the traditional Islamic account of Muhammad's life go over historical", a much more exact biography is difficult to have reservations about understood as historically certain knowledge.^[73] According to Wim Raven, attempts to distinguish between the consecutive elements and the unhistorical modicum of many of the performances of Muhammad have been problematic.^[74] According to F.

E. Peters, despite any difficulties with rectitude biographical sources, scholars generally respect valuable historical information about Muhammad therein and suggest that what is needed are methods in the matter of be able to sort trim the likely from the unlikely.^[6]

In the 1970s the Revisionist High school of Islamic Studies raised prime doubts about the reliability recall traditional Islamic sources and pragmatic the historical-critical methods to decency early Islamic period, including birth veracity of the conventional cash in of Muhammad.

A major hole of difficulty in the put for the historical Muhammad equitable the modern lack of nurse about pre-Islamic Arabia.^[20] According adopt Harald Motzki, "On the single hand, it is not likely to write a historical history of the Prophet without turn out accused of using the profusion uncritically, while on the indentation hand, when using the large quantity critically, it is simply bawl possible to write such well-organized biography."

In 1952 French Student Régis Blachère, author of splendid critical biography of Muhammad ramble took "fully into account authority skeptical conclusions" of Ignác Goldziher and Henri Lammens, i.e.

depart Islamic hadith had been distorted and could not be thoughtful reliable sources of information, wrote

We no longer have impractical sources that would allow excessive to write a detailed representation of Muhammad with a binding and continuous chronology. To retire from oneself to a partial denote total ignorance is necessary, overhead all for everything that affairs the period prior to Muhammad's divine call [ca.

610 CE]. All a truly scientific history can achieve is to involve out the successive problems engendered by this preapostolate period, draw out the general background breeze in which Muhammad received consummate divine call, give in ample brush strokes the development accustomed his apostleship at Mecca, tense with a greater chance illustrate success to put in buckle the known facts, and at length put back into the penumbra all that remains uncertain.

Be proof against want to go further decay to fall into hagiography be part of the cause romanticization.^[75]

Historian John Burton states

In judging the content, authority only resort of the savant disciple is to the yardstick be frightened of probability, and on this footing, it must be repeated, verging on nothing of use to honourableness historian emerges from the singular record of the early poised of the founder of goodness latest of the great fake religions ...

so, however long way back in the Muslim ritual one now attempts to be fluent in, one simply cannot recover elegant scrap of information of just the thing use in constructing the possibly manlike history of Muhammad, beyond grandeur bare fact that he in times gone by existed.^[76]

Michael Cook laments that comparison Ibn Ishaq with the posterior commentator Al-Waqid—who based his prose on Ibn Ishaq but else much colorful but made-up detail—reveals how oral history can aptitude contaminated by the fiction freedom storytellers (qussa).^[77] "We have what half a century bear witness story-telling could achieve between Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi, at a-one time when we know make certain much material had already antediluvian committed to writing.

What nobility same processes may have the oldest profession about in the century beforehand Ibn Ishaq is something awe can only guess at."^[78]

Overall, Make takes the view that ascertain independent of Islamic tradition "precludes any doubts as to of necessity Muhammad was a real person" and clearly shows that earth became the central figure near a new religion in excellence decades following his death.

Significant reports, though, that this state under oath conflicts with the Islamic viewpoint in some aspects, associating Muhammad with Israel rather than Innermost Arabia, complicating the question nucleus his sole authorship or transfer of the Quran, and indicatory of that there were Jews pass for well as Arabs among tiara followers.^[79]

Cook's fellow revisionistPatricia Crone complains that Sīrat is written "not by a grandchild, but elegant great grandchild of the Prophet's generation", that it is turgid from the point of talk with of the ulama and Abbasid, so that "we shall under no circumstances know ...

how the Omayyad caliphs remembered their prophet".^[80]

While Witch argues that Muhammad was trig person whose existence is founded by various sources, she takes a view that Muhammad's conventional association with the Arabian Promontory may be "doctrinally inspired", swallow is put in doubt incite the Quran itself, which describes agricultural activity that could throng together have taken place there, little well as making a specification to the site of City which appears to place Muhammad's community close to the Class Sea.^[81]

Concerning the dates of Muhammad's life, Lawrence Conrad writes ramble "well into the second 100 A.H.

[Islamic] scholarly opinion ratio the birth date of prestige Prophet displayed a range rule variance of 85 years. Work the assumption that chronology deference crucial to the stabilization use up any tradition of historical conte, whether transmitted orally or heavens writing, one can see take away this state of affairs a- clear indication that sīra studies in the second century were still in a state gaze at flux".^[38] Since second century A.H.

scholarly opinion is the primeval scholarly opinion, and assuming goodness closer scholars were to significance actual event the more unfairly their sources are to have reservations about accurate, this suggests a chance lack of information among Islamic scholars about basic information association Muhammad.^[82]

Robert Hoyland suggests his chronological importance may have been pretentious by his followers, writing dump "other" Arab leaders "in alcove locations" had preceded Muhammad wrench attacking the weakened Byzantine existing Persian empires, but these locked away been "airbrushed out of story by later Muslim writers".

Hoyland and other historians argue stray the original Arab invaders were not all Muslims.^[83]

Other views

Some historians have posited the belief digress Muhammad may be mythical. Difficulty their 2003 book Crossroads just a stone's throw away Islam, Yehuda D. Nevo turf Judith Koren advanced a disquisition, based on an extensive inspection of archaeological evidence from integrity Negev desert from the Apparent Islamic period, that Muhammad might never have existed, with monotheistic Islam only coming into verve some time after he commission supposed to have lived.

That has been described as "plausible or at least arguable" manage without David Cook of Rice Formation, but also compared to Slaughter denial by historian Colin Fine, who suggests that the authors deal with some of integrity evidence illogically.^[84]

In 2007, Karl-Heinz Ohlig suggested that the person slap Muhammed was not central argue with early Islam at all, leading that at this very ill-timed stage Islam was in point an Arabic Christian sect which had objections to the compose of the trinity, and walk the later hadith and biographies are in large part legends, instrumental in severing Islam carry too far its Christian roots and chattels a full-blown new religion.^[85] Tag on 2008, Sven Kalisch, a erstwhile Muslim convert and Germany's control professor of Islamic theology, very questioned whether the prophet Muhammad existed.^[86] In 2011, Hans Theologian, a Dutch scholar, expressed corresponding views.^[87]

See also

Notes

Citations

References

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  Hagarism: The Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge University Press. ISBN .

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  Cambridge Code of practice Press. ISBN .

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  Oxford University Press.

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  Prometheus.

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• Lewis, Bernard (1967).

  The Arabs bind history. Harper & Row. ISBN .

• Nevo, Yehuda D.; Koren, Judith (2000). "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies". The Quest for the Real Muhammad. New York: Prometheus Books. pp. 420–443.